Resolution Trees with Lemmas: Resolution Refinements that Characterize DLL Algorithms with Clause Learning

Resolution refinements called w-resolution trees with lemmas (WRTL) and with input lemmas (WRTI) are introduced. Dag-like resolution is equivalent to both WRTL and WRTI when there is no regularity condition. For regular proofs, an exponential separation between regular dag-like resolution and both regular WRTL and regular WRTI is given. It is proved that DLL proof search algorithms that use clause learning based on unit propagation can be polynomially simulated by regular WRTI. More generally, non-greedy DLL algorithms with learning by unit propagation are equivalent to regular WRTI. A general form of clause learning, called DLL-Learn, is defined that is equivalent to regular WRTL. A variable extension method is used to give simulations of resolution by regular WRTI, using a simplified form of proof trace extensions. DLL-Learn and non-greedy DLL algorithms with learning by unit propagation can use variable extensions to simulate general resolution without doing restarts. Finally, an exponential lower bound for WRTL where the lemmas are restricted to short clauses is shown

Efficiently Simulating Higher-Order Arithmetic by a First-Order Theory Modulo

In deduction modulo, a theory is not represented by a set of axioms but by a congruence on propositions modulo which the inference rules of standard deductive systems---such as for instance natural deduction---are applied. Therefore, the reasoning that is intrinsic of the theory does not appear in the length of proofs. In general, the congruence is defined through a rewrite system over terms and propositions. We define a rigorous framework to study proof lengths in deduction modulo, where the congruence must be computed in polynomial time. We show that even very simple rewrite systems lead to arbitrary proof-length speed-ups in deduction modulo, compared to using axioms. As higher-order logic can be encoded as a first-order theory in deduction modulo, we also study how to reinterpret, thanks to deduction modulo, the speed-ups between higher-order and first-order arithmetics that were stated by G\"odel. We define a first-order rewrite system with a congruence decidable in polynomial time such that proofs of higher-order arithmetic can be linearly translated into first-order arithmetic modulo that system. We also present the whole higher-order arithmetic as a first-order system without resorting to any axiom, where proofs have the same length as in the axiomatic presentation

Pseudo-finite hard instances for a student-teacher game with a Nisan-Wigderson generator

For an NP intersect coNP function g of the Nisan-Wigderson type and a string b outside its range we consider a two player game on a common input a to the function. One player, a computationally limited Student, tries to find a bit of g(a) that differs from the corresponding bit of b. He can query a computationally unlimited Teacher for the witnesses of the values of constantly many bits of g(a). The Student computes the queries from a and from Teacher's answers to his previous queries. It was proved by Krajicek (2011) that if g is based on a hard bit of a one-way permutation then no Student computed by a polynomial size circuit can succeed on all a. In this paper we give a lower bound on the number of inputs a any such Student must fail on. Using that we show that there is a pseudo-finite set of hard instances on which all uniform students must fail. The hard-core set is defined in a non-standard model of true arithmetic and has applications in a forcing construction relevant to proof complexity

Bounded Arithmetic in Free Logic

One of the central open questions in bounded arithmetic is whether Buss' hierarchy of theories of bounded arithmetic collapses or not. In this paper, we reformulate Buss' theories using free logic and conjecture that such theories are easier to handle. To show this, we first prove that Buss' theories prove consistencies of induction-free fragments of our theories whose formulae have bounded complexity. Next, we prove that although our theories are based on an apparently weaker logic, we can interpret theories in Buss' hierarchy by our theories using a simple translation. Finally, we investigate finitistic G\"odel sentences in our systems in the hope of proving that a theory in a lower level of Buss' hierarchy cannot prove consistency of induction-free fragments of our theories whose formulae have higher complexity

Width and size of regular resolution proofs

This paper discusses the topic of the minimum width of a regular resolution refutation of a set of clauses. The main result shows that there are examples having small regular resolution refutations, for which any regular refutation must contain a large clause. This forms a contrast with corresponding results for general resolution refutations.Comment: The article was reformatted using the style file for Logical Methods in Computer Scienc

Proof Complexity

This note, based on my 4ECM lecture, exposes few basic points of proof complexity in a way accessible to any mathematician

Interpolation Theorems, Lower Bounds for Proof Systems, and Independence Results for Bounded Arithmetic

A proof of the (propositional) Craig interpolation theorem for cut-free sequent calculus yields that a sequent with a cut-free proof (or with a proof with cut-formulas of restricted form; in particular, with only analytic cuts) with k inferences has an interpolant whose circuit-size is at most k. We give a new proof of the interpolation theorem based on a communication complexity approach which allows a similar estimate for a larger class of proofs. We derive from it several corollaries: 1. Feasible interpolation theorems for the following proof systems: (a) resolution. (b) a subsystem of LK corresponding to the bounded arithmetic theory S 2 2 (ff). (c) linear equational calculus. (d) cutting planes. 2. New proofs of the exponential lower bounds (for new formulas) (a) for resolution ([15]). (b) for the cutting planes proof system with coefficients written in unary ([4]). 3. An alternative proof of the independence result of [43] concerning the provability of circuit-size lower bounds ..

ON THE NUMBER OF STEPS IN PROOFS

In this paper we prove some results about the complexity of proofs. We consider proofs in Hilbert-style formal systems such as in [17J. Thus a proof is a sequence of formulas satisfying certain conditions. We caD view the formulas as being strings of symbols; hence the whole proof is a string too. We consider the following measures of complexity of proofs: length ( = the number of symbols in the proof), depth ( = the maximal depth of a formula in the proof) and number o! steps ( = the number of formulas in the proof). For a particular formaI system and a given formula A we consider the shortest length of a proof of A, the minimal depth ofa proof of A and the minimal number of steps in a proof of A. The main results are the following: (1) a bound on the depth in terms of the number of steps: Theorem 2.2, (2) a bound on the depth in terms of the length: Theorem 2.3, (3) a bound on the length in terms of the number of steps for restricted systems: Theorem 3.1. These results are applied to obtain several corollaries. In particular we show: (1) a bound on the number of steps in a cut-free proof, (2) some speed-up results, (3) bounds on the number of steps in proofs of Paris-Harrington sentences. Some pape